Hi my name is Cannaly and I am an Early childhood teacher. I have set up this blog page to help university students, parents and fellow teachers gain knowledge and understanding about a teaching and learning theory that I am interested in. This particular theory is called cognitive constructivism. Cognitive constructivism has been instrumental in helping me not only to understand how children learn and think but also in aiding me to develop my curriculum and lesson plans. I hope that this blog page helps those university students struggling to understand why theories need to be learnt and how they can help in making them become better teachers.
Saturday, April 4, 2009
Firstly I would like to explain what I mean by cognitive constructivism. To do this I think the best way is to define both words and then discuss it as a whole.
Cognitive Development – “A gradual increase in the sophistication of the mental process” (Snowman, Dobozy, Scevak, Bryer, Bartlett & Biehler, 2009, p.26)
Constructivism – “the view that meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge structures rather than a mere transferring of objective knowledge from one person to another” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.26)
Therefore, the theory of cognitive constructivism can simply be viewed as the theory of changing of thinking as a result of many meaningful encounters. The theorist who studied, developed and believed in cognitive constructivism was a psychologist named Jean Piaget (pictured above, image 1).
Cognitive Development – “A gradual increase in the sophistication of the mental process” (Snowman, Dobozy, Scevak, Bryer, Bartlett & Biehler, 2009, p.26)
Constructivism – “the view that meaningful learning is the active creation of knowledge structures rather than a mere transferring of objective knowledge from one person to another” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.26)
Therefore, the theory of cognitive constructivism can simply be viewed as the theory of changing of thinking as a result of many meaningful encounters. The theorist who studied, developed and believed in cognitive constructivism was a psychologist named Jean Piaget (pictured above, image 1).
Hi Cannaly my name is Julie and I am a first year uni student at Monash. I am in my first semester and have heard this Piaget’s name mentioned a few times but don’t really know who he is or what he is on about. I don’t see how someone from so long ago can have any relevance in helping me become a teacher. Can you please give me some more information?
Thanks!!!!
Thanks!!!!
Hi Julie, thanks for taking an interest in my blog.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist born in 1896. He was educated in zoology, which explains his biological aspects to the way children learn and develop (Berk, 2003). His theory of cognitive constructivism was created by studying his three children, interacting with them and observing how they develop learning environments and prospects (Tzuo, 2007)
Piaget's constructivist theory was created to explain a "post facto rationale for a pedagogy that was proceeding by instinct" (Cunningham, 2006, p.8) and became particularly important in the 1950's. His perspective was that individuals construct development first as a foremost process, followed by the enhancement of learning and the improvement of already situated structures. His key concepts were four developmental stages in which "children actively construct their own learning through play and exploration" (Edwards(1), 2005, p.11). Piaget's work is still widely used and very relevant today as it is "still deeply ingrained" (Cunningham, 2006, p.10) in the formation of free environments for children to discover and learn on their own.
Hope that explains who he was better Julie. =]
Jean Piaget was a Swiss developmental psychologist born in 1896. He was educated in zoology, which explains his biological aspects to the way children learn and develop (Berk, 2003). His theory of cognitive constructivism was created by studying his three children, interacting with them and observing how they develop learning environments and prospects (Tzuo, 2007)
Piaget's constructivist theory was created to explain a "post facto rationale for a pedagogy that was proceeding by instinct" (Cunningham, 2006, p.8) and became particularly important in the 1950's. His perspective was that individuals construct development first as a foremost process, followed by the enhancement of learning and the improvement of already situated structures. His key concepts were four developmental stages in which "children actively construct their own learning through play and exploration" (Edwards(1), 2005, p.11). Piaget's work is still widely used and very relevant today as it is "still deeply ingrained" (Cunningham, 2006, p.10) in the formation of free environments for children to discover and learn on their own.
Hope that explains who he was better Julie. =]
Stage 1 - Sensorimotor
Piaget’s first stage of development is called the Sensorimotor stage. This developmental stage starts at the very beginning of life and continues until the individual is about 2. Sensorimotor aged children can be described to “think with their eyes and hands” (Berk, 2003, p.227) or in other words, children at this stage heavily rely on their senses to gain cognitive knowledge and ideas.
Through active exploration, children at this level also develop both gross and fine motor skills quite rapidly. Piaget believes that these skills ultimately help children create permanent mental representations for objects (Dimitriadis, 2006). Representations are also achieved by “repeating schemes to strengthen chance” (Berk, 2003, p.227). For example a child may realise that by making a movement with their mouth, a re-occurring sound appears. These small developments are firstly aimed inward, using the child’s own body parts, then gradually outward to the surrounding environment (Berk, 2003).
Another characteristic of the sensorimotor stage can be seen as children develop “intentional or goal related behaviour” (Berk, 2003, p.227). This occurs when certain actions create certain responses. For example, this can be seen when infants realise that when they cry someone will come to their aid. Toward the end of this stage, a child will have developed enough knowledge to develop simple solutions to certain problems they may have such as finding an object that has been moved out of sight.
Through active exploration, children at this level also develop both gross and fine motor skills quite rapidly. Piaget believes that these skills ultimately help children create permanent mental representations for objects (Dimitriadis, 2006). Representations are also achieved by “repeating schemes to strengthen chance” (Berk, 2003, p.227). For example a child may realise that by making a movement with their mouth, a re-occurring sound appears. These small developments are firstly aimed inward, using the child’s own body parts, then gradually outward to the surrounding environment (Berk, 2003).
Another characteristic of the sensorimotor stage can be seen as children develop “intentional or goal related behaviour” (Berk, 2003, p.227). This occurs when certain actions create certain responses. For example, this can be seen when infants realise that when they cry someone will come to their aid. Toward the end of this stage, a child will have developed enough knowledge to develop simple solutions to certain problems they may have such as finding an object that has been moved out of sight.
Hi Cannaly my name is Fiona and I am a childcare worker. I have seen what you have described in Piaget's sensorimotor stage occuring in my baby room. In this room I have 6 month to 1 year old children and they all use their senses to help them to gain knowledge. Therefore when programming I have lots of activities that are hands on and child initiated. For example, providing a variety of activities in the sand pit, where children can select the activity that interests them and interact directly with the materials themselves. I have provided a photo (image 2) of a child in my class displaying some of the characteristics Piaget describes that you have mentioned above.
Stage 2 - Preoperational
Piaget’s second level of development is the preoperational stage. This stage normally occurs between children of the ages 2-7 years. The term preoperational means before logical thinking (Snowman, et al., 2009) or in other words it is the stage at which children have not yet acquired the ability to think logically. As a result of this, children’s thoughts at this stage are often looked at by adults as being incorrect or immature. However “Piaget researched the fact that children’s thinking was not just immature adult thinking but was quantitivly different” (Puckett & Black, 2001, p263). There are several characteristics of cognitive development that can be seen in children at the preoperational stage.
One of the main characteristics that was looked at quite heavily with preoperational children by Piaget was that of conservation. Conservation problems test children’s ability to recognise “that certain properties stay the same despite a change in appearance or position” (Snowman, et al., 2009, p31). Children at this developmental level find it hard to understand why some things are the same, even though their shape may differ. Piaget developed several conservation tests to look at a child’s level of thinking. He discovered that children at this level used their senses (sight) to develop an answer (Puckett & Black, 2001).
Some other characteristics of the preoperational stage are egocentrism, irreversibility and physiognomic perception. Egocentrism is when children see the world only through their eyes and therefore assume that everyone else around them thinks the same way as them (McInherny & McInherny, 2002). Similarly to the narrowed view of egocentrism, irreversibility is a thought pattern where children are not able to reverse a thought. For example they can not look back on actions or events and think how they could have been different. Another of the characteristics that Piaget lists as common for children 2-7 is physiognomic perception. This is when “lifelike qualities are attributed to inanimate objects” (McInereny & McInherny, 2002, p.28). This may be seen when children of this age bang into an object and say “that silly chair hurt me”. Each one of these characteristic mentioned above, plus several others, Piaget believes to be paramount in the mental development of a young child (Puckett & Black, 2001). By children developing and working through these cognitive characteristics children will gradually develop knowledge and higher order thinking skills.
My name is Samantha and I am a year 1 teacher. I used Piaget’s conservation tests within my classroom to give me an idea of what level of thinking my children are at. Please see image 3 that is attached. The boy in this photo was presented with 2 glasses and the same amount of water (measured with the child) was placed in each. When asked what one had the most water in it, this child pointed to the glass on the left (the taller one). I asked him why and he said “Because actually it’s bigger and that means more”. Through my readings I have discovered that this is a very typical response for a child at this age as they do not have the ability to think logically (Puckett & Black, 2001). After gaining this type of knowledge, I then set up my programs to involve a large amount of exploration with conservation issues so that children can develop knowledge (schemes) which will help them to develop logical thinking. Some activities I suggest for other teachers are water tables, measuring activities and comparing exercises.
Stage 3 - Concrete Operational
The concrete operational stage occurs from the ages of 7 to 11 and is described as “logical, flexible and organised” (Berk, 2003, p.227). At this stage a child’s cognitive knowledge has progressed quite a bit and children are now able to consider other people instead of the egocentric view they had in the previous stages. The key concept in this stage is that of its title, concrete, as children still rely on concrete experiences to develop knowledge. This is because they “generalise only from concrete experiences” (Snowman, et al., 2009, 32).
Piaget believed the biggest indicator that children had reached this developmental level was the fact that children could now solve conservation problems logically and correctly (McInerney & McInerney, 2002). As well as this, children at this level tend to have moved away from using their senses to solve problems and will more then often rely on their new found logical reasoning skills to achieve an answer. Another typical characteristic of Concrete Operational children is the ability to classify. Classifying involves a child placing items in a group dependent on a common factor that they all possess. The main way children at this stage can be seen to group items is through a seriation process (McInerney & McInerney, 2002). Or in other words in size order.
Piaget believed the biggest indicator that children had reached this developmental level was the fact that children could now solve conservation problems logically and correctly (McInerney & McInerney, 2002). As well as this, children at this level tend to have moved away from using their senses to solve problems and will more then often rely on their new found logical reasoning skills to achieve an answer. Another typical characteristic of Concrete Operational children is the ability to classify. Classifying involves a child placing items in a group dependent on a common factor that they all possess. The main way children at this stage can be seen to group items is through a seriation process (McInerney & McInerney, 2002). Or in other words in size order.
Hi, Im John and I am a year 4 teacher, so therefore I am teaching children in Piaget’s level that you have just described. I think the best thing to do with children at this age level is to provide them with as many concrete activities that you can which each present opportunities to master their mental processes. These can be activities for example, "involving ordering, classifying, reversing and multiplying" (Snowman, et al., 2009, p.39). I have included a picture on some of my children practicing these mental processes. (image 4).
Stage 4 - Formal Operational
The last of Piagets stages is called Formal Operational. This is the largest stage of development as it is very broad and spans from children aged 11 to adulthood. “The formal operational individual possesses a unified logical system with which to explore systematically hypothetical situations and abstract relations independent of content” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p35). In this stage of development individuals use all the cognitive knowledge that they have acquired in the previous 3 stages to actively problem solve by assessing a problem and creating a variety of outcomes with out even attempting the problem. Unlike in the other developmental levels, individuals are able to deal with a variety of factors and think ‘outside the box’. Individuals in the formal operational stage also have a large and expanding vocabulary. Complex vocabulary such as metaphors, proverbs and sarcasm can be used and understood by people at this cognitive stage (Snowman, et al., 2009).
Piaget believes the ultimate logical structure that individuals develop, and “which is the base of logical thinking, is called the structure of grouping” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.37). The structure of groupings involves all of the previously learnt cognitive characteristics working together during an individual’s logical thinking. This structure develops over time whilst in the final stage of development. It is important to note, however, that full cognitive development may take many years. A child at the very beginnings of this stage (age 11 or 12) will solve problems very differently to that of someone aged 30 or even again at the age of 50. Piaget believes this is because we constantly construct cognitive knowledge through active interactions over time (Puckett & Black, 2001). Therefore the older we get the more experience we have with solving problems and the better equipped we are with using appropriate cognitive knowledge.
Piaget believes the ultimate logical structure that individuals develop, and “which is the base of logical thinking, is called the structure of grouping” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.37). The structure of groupings involves all of the previously learnt cognitive characteristics working together during an individual’s logical thinking. This structure develops over time whilst in the final stage of development. It is important to note, however, that full cognitive development may take many years. A child at the very beginnings of this stage (age 11 or 12) will solve problems very differently to that of someone aged 30 or even again at the age of 50. Piaget believes this is because we constantly construct cognitive knowledge through active interactions over time (Puckett & Black, 2001). Therefore the older we get the more experience we have with solving problems and the better equipped we are with using appropriate cognitive knowledge.
Now that I have told you about the stages of development, I would like to describe what I believe a Piaget inspired classroom looks like. For all of the uni students reading this, this basically will answer all your questions as to how can Piaget’s theory help you, as you will be able to see how to link theory to practise (if they have not been answered as of yet). As mentioned earlier, Piaget does believe that development happens progressively, irrespective of other factors however we as teachers can provide environments that support each child’s scheme making process.
A Piaget inspired classroom should firstly be developmentally appropriate. By this I mean that “there should be an optimal match between the developmental stage of the child and the logical properties of the materials to be learnt” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.38). Therefore teachers should have a thorough knowledge of each stage and an understanding of what types of mental processes to focus and extend on. The activities and lessons run by each teacher should be enriched in hands on, open ended, child initiated components in which children have the opportunity to discuss their new experiences with their peers. This way, children “will discover through these interactions the way the world works” (Snowman, et al., 2009, p.36). The teacher, in a Piaget inspired classroom should be merely an organiser and a support network as teachers should “set up a rich environment for children to explore by themselves” (Tzuo, 2007, p.33).
The last thing I would like to mention is the motivation and discipline out look of a Piaget inspired classroom. This type of a classroom should be one in which being positive and constantly aiming to develop high levels of motivation should be paramount as children will therefore want to learn. To do this, teachers should “minimise focus on errors and highlight positive achievements, which increase productive and creative thinking" (Moseley & Baumfield & Elliot & Gregson & Higgins & Newton, 2005). Children will therefore ultimately “develop a real interest” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.39) in learning.
A Piaget inspired classroom should firstly be developmentally appropriate. By this I mean that “there should be an optimal match between the developmental stage of the child and the logical properties of the materials to be learnt” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.38). Therefore teachers should have a thorough knowledge of each stage and an understanding of what types of mental processes to focus and extend on. The activities and lessons run by each teacher should be enriched in hands on, open ended, child initiated components in which children have the opportunity to discuss their new experiences with their peers. This way, children “will discover through these interactions the way the world works” (Snowman, et al., 2009, p.36). The teacher, in a Piaget inspired classroom should be merely an organiser and a support network as teachers should “set up a rich environment for children to explore by themselves” (Tzuo, 2007, p.33).
The last thing I would like to mention is the motivation and discipline out look of a Piaget inspired classroom. This type of a classroom should be one in which being positive and constantly aiming to develop high levels of motivation should be paramount as children will therefore want to learn. To do this, teachers should “minimise focus on errors and highlight positive achievements, which increase productive and creative thinking" (Moseley & Baumfield & Elliot & Gregson & Higgins & Newton, 2005). Children will therefore ultimately “develop a real interest” (McInerney & McInerney, 2002, p.39) in learning.
I would like to finish my Blog page with an excerpt from a journal article that I have read that I found interesting. I decided to do this so that everyone can see another point of veiw on how to use this theory in practise.
"Piaget was the theory that I remember most from university and I believe that the ages and stages gave me the basis of where a child should be when I needed guidance and ideas as a beginning teacher. Even though children are very different and move through stages at different rates it was comforting to be familiar with these stages. The thoughts of being interactive with experiences – touch, handle, move, taste, see and hear to be involved in an activity I believe are important – although I know some children need to have extended periods of watching and observing before they are ready for the interactive level. By providing open ended activities children are given an opportunity to be involved at their own level of development. Even today
I use checklists, running records, anecdotal records for individual and group records. (Reflective journal, teacher three)" (Edwards(2), S. 2007, p.13)
"Piaget was the theory that I remember most from university and I believe that the ages and stages gave me the basis of where a child should be when I needed guidance and ideas as a beginning teacher. Even though children are very different and move through stages at different rates it was comforting to be familiar with these stages. The thoughts of being interactive with experiences – touch, handle, move, taste, see and hear to be involved in an activity I believe are important – although I know some children need to have extended periods of watching and observing before they are ready for the interactive level. By providing open ended activities children are given an opportunity to be involved at their own level of development. Even today
I use checklists, running records, anecdotal records for individual and group records. (Reflective journal, teacher three)" (Edwards(2), S. 2007, p.13)
References
Berk. L (2003). Chapter 6: Cognitive Development perspectives (pp.216-267). Child Development (6th Edition). Allyn & Bacon: Boston.
Cunningham. P (2006). Early years teachers and the influence of Piaget:evidence form oral history. Early Years. 26(1), pg 8-14
Dimitriadis. G (2006). Theory for education. Hoboken: Routledge
Edwards(1), S. (2005). Children's learning and developmental potential: examining the theoretical informants of early childhood curricula for the educator's perspective. Early Years. 25 (1), 67-80.
Edwards(2), S. (2007). From developmental-constructivism to socio-cultural theory and practice: an expansive analysis of teachers' professional learning in early childhood education. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research. 5 (1), 83-106.
McInerney, D. & McInerney, V. (2002). Educational Psychology: Constructing Learning. NSW, Australia; Pearson Educational Australia Pty Lim.
Moseley. D, Baumfield.V, Elliot. J, Gregson. M, Higgins. S, Miller. J, Newton D (2005). Frameworks for thinking: a handbook for teaching and learning. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press
Puckett, M. & Black, J. (2001). The Young Child: Development from prebirth through age eight. New Jersey; Prentice Hall Inc.
Snowman, J. & Dobozy, E. & Scevak, J. & Bryer, F. & Barlett, B. & Biehler (2009). Psychology: Applied to teaching. Qld, Australia; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Tzuno. P. W (2007). The tension between teacher control adn children's freedom in a child-centred classroom: resolving the practical dilemma through a closer look at te related theories. Early childhood Journal. 35(1). 33 - 39.
Cunningham. P (2006). Early years teachers and the influence of Piaget:evidence form oral history. Early Years. 26(1), pg 8-14
Dimitriadis. G (2006). Theory for education. Hoboken: Routledge
Edwards(1), S. (2005). Children's learning and developmental potential: examining the theoretical informants of early childhood curricula for the educator's perspective. Early Years. 25 (1), 67-80.
Edwards(2), S. (2007). From developmental-constructivism to socio-cultural theory and practice: an expansive analysis of teachers' professional learning in early childhood education. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research. 5 (1), 83-106.
McInerney, D. & McInerney, V. (2002). Educational Psychology: Constructing Learning. NSW, Australia; Pearson Educational Australia Pty Lim.
Moseley. D, Baumfield.V, Elliot. J, Gregson. M, Higgins. S, Miller. J, Newton D (2005). Frameworks for thinking: a handbook for teaching and learning. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press
Puckett, M. & Black, J. (2001). The Young Child: Development from prebirth through age eight. New Jersey; Prentice Hall Inc.
Snowman, J. & Dobozy, E. & Scevak, J. & Bryer, F. & Barlett, B. & Biehler (2009). Psychology: Applied to teaching. Qld, Australia; John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Tzuno. P. W (2007). The tension between teacher control adn children's freedom in a child-centred classroom: resolving the practical dilemma through a closer look at te related theories. Early childhood Journal. 35(1). 33 - 39.
Images used in this blog
Image 1 from - http://itc.umanitoba.ca/
Image 2 from - http://2.about.com/
Image 3 from - personal photo
Image 4 from - http://www.tate.org.uk/
Image 5 from - www.discoverycube.org
Image 6 from - http://www.tnpckids.com/
Image 7 from - http://www.tnpckids.com/
Image 8 from - http://www.frankston.vic.gov.au/
Image 9 from - http://www.msu.edu/
Image 2 from - http://2.about.com/
Image 3 from - personal photo
Image 4 from - http://www.tate.org.uk/
Image 5 from - www.discoverycube.org
Image 6 from - http://www.tnpckids.com/
Image 7 from - http://www.tnpckids.com/
Image 8 from - http://www.frankston.vic.gov.au/
Image 9 from - http://www.msu.edu/
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